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Asked: September 26, 2020In: Miscellaneous

What safeguards do you use to avoid mistakes in drawing a plan?

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What safeguards do you use to avoid mistakes in drawing a plan?

  1. AdityaBhandakkar

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    Added an answer on October 15, 2020 at 9:41 pm

    Hi Nikeeta, Nice to read your answer to your question. I would like to add some significant mistakes that freshers civil engineers/architectures make while drawing plan The plan is not co-ordinated - In many construction companies, due to lack of coordination between architectural drawing with electRead more

    Hi Nikeeta,

    Nice to read your answer to your question.

    I would like to add some significant mistakes that freshers civil engineers/architectures make while drawing plan

    1. The plan is not co-ordinated – In many construction companies, due to lack of coordination between architectural drawing with electrical and electric drawing with mechanical for electric wires. Conduits, etc., which leads to a massive problem in the forward lane.
    2. Incomplete Plan: If an inexperienced engineer is going to draft complex building structures, many issues arise. Complete construction plans consist of multiple sheets, including architectural, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, structural engineering, and possibly other disciplines. The more complex the project, the more sheets of drawings there will be. When the plans are not complete, it increases the risk for the lender.
    3. Detail lacking: To reduce time, some architects/engineers will skip some of the drawings’ details. Rather than drawing the details of a roof edge dimensions or a window detail, they’ll add vague notes about what that portion of the construction will contain. That leads to significant problems for site engineers and results in error in structure. Once the contractor is on-site, and they have to attempt to interpret the puzzling notes into actual construction, they will generally have questions about exactly how that is to be done.
    4. The wrong set of PCR values:  The planning process produces various progress sets of drawings, from the original conceptual design drawings to progress collections of construction drawings. Ultimately, the “for construction” set that the contractor will use to build the building.
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Asked: September 26, 2020In: Miscellaneous

Which software will be more easy to make a 2D plan?

nikeetasharma
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Which software can be used to make a easy 2D plan?

  1. Komal Bhandakkar

    Komal Bhandakkar

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    Added an answer on September 29, 2020 at 5:06 pm
    Which software will be more easy to make a 2D plan?

    Various planning software is available in the market half key features 2D drawing and 3D modelling. ArchiCAD is an architectural CAD software developed by Graphisoft which allow us to do 3D as well as 2D drafting visualisation for building model and this is the best 2D software. Apart from that, theRead more

    Various planning software is available in the market half key features 2D drawing and 3D modelling.

    ArchiCAD is an architectural CAD software developed by Graphisoft which allow us to do 3D as well as 2D drafting visualisation for building model and this is the best 2D software.

    Apart from that, the following software we can also use:

    • Infornia
    • Floorplanner- we can create a 2D 3D floor plan
    • Plan floor creator

     

     

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Asked: September 25, 2020In: Structural Engineering

How do you calculate twisting moment?

nikeetasharma
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how to calculate twisting moment?

  1. nikeetasharma

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    Added an answer on October 15, 2020 at 10:10 am

    Torsion is the twisting of a beam under the action of a torque (twisting moment). It is systematically applied to screws, nuts, axles, drive shafts etc, and is also generated more randomly under service conditions in car bodies, boat hulls, aircraft fuselages, bridges, springs and many other structuRead more

    Torsion is the twisting of a beam under the action of a torque (twisting moment). It is systematically applied to screws, nuts, axles, drive shafts etc, and is also generated more randomly under service conditions in car bodies, boat hulls, aircraft fuselages, bridges, springs and many other structures and components. A torque, T , has the same units (N m) as a bending moment, M . Both are the product of a force and a distance. In the case of a torque, the force is tangential and the distance is the radial distance between this tangent and the axis of rotation.

    All torsion problems can be solved using the following formula:

    T/J = shear stress/ r = (G * angle)/ L

    where:

    T = torque or twisting moment, [N×m, lb×in]
    J = polar moment of inertia or polar second moment of area about shaft axis, [m4, in4]
    τ = shear stress at outer fibre, [Pa, psi]
    r = radius of the shaft, [m, in]
    G = modulus of rigidity (PanGlobal and Reed’s) or shear modulus (everybody else), [Pa, psi]
    θ = angle of twist, [rad]
    L = length of the shaft, [m, in]

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Asked: September 25, 2020In: Miscellaneous

What are the advantages and disadvantages of remote sensing?

nikeetasharma
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what are the advantages and disadvantages of remote sensing?

  1. nikeetasharma

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    Added an answer on October 10, 2020 at 5:04 pm

    Advantages of remote sensing :- 1. Large area coverage: Remote sensing allows coverage of very large areas which enables regional surveys on a variety of themes and identification of extremely large features. 2. Remote sensing allows repetitive coverage which comes in handy when collecting data on dRead more

    Advantages of remote sensing :-

    1. Large area coverage: Remote sensing allows coverage of very large areas which enables regional surveys on a variety of themes and identification of extremely large features.
    2. Remote sensing allows repetitive coverage which comes in handy when collecting data on dynamic themes such as water, agricultural fields and so on.
    3. Remote sensing allows for easy collection of data over a variety of scales and resolutions.
    4. A single image captured through remote sensing can be analyzed and interpreted for use in various applications and purposes. There is no limitation on the extent of information that can be gathered from a single remotely sensed image.
    5. Remotely sensed data can easily be processed and analyzed fast using a computer and the data utilized for various purposes.
    6. Remote sensing is unobstructive especially if the sensor is passively recording the electromagnetic energy reflected from or emitted by the phenomena of interest. This means that passive remote sensing does not disturb the object or the area of interest.
    7. Data collected through remote sensing is analyzed at the laboratory which minimizes the work that needs to be done on the field.
    8. Remote sensing allows for map revision at a small to medium scale which makes it a bit cheaper and faster.
    9. Color composite can be obtained or produced from three separate band images which ensure the details of the area are far much more defined than when only a single band image or aerial photograph is being reproduced.
    10. It is easier to locate floods or forest fire that has spread over a large region which makes it easier to plan a rescue mission easily and fast.
    11. Remote sensing is a relatively cheap and constructive method reconstructing a base map in the absence of detailed land survey methods.

    Disadvantages of remote sensing :-

    1. Remote sensing is a fairly expensive method of analysis especially when measuring or analyzing smaller areas.
    2. Remote sensing requires a special kind of training to analyze the images. It is therefore expensive in the long run to use remote sensing technology since extra training must be accorded to the users of the technology.
    3. It is expensive to analyze repetitive photographs if there is need to analyze different aspects of the photography features.
    4. It is humans who select what sensor needs to be used to collect the data, specify the resolution of the data and calibration of the sensor, select the platform that will carry the sensor and determine when the data will be collected. Because of this, it is easier to introduce human error in this kind of analysis.
    5. Powerful active remote sensing systems such as radars that emit their own electromagnetic radiation can be intrusive and affect the phenomenon being investigated.
    6. The instruments used in remote sensing may sometimes be un-calibrated which may lead to un-calibrated remote sensing data.
    7. Sometimes different phenomena being analyzed may look the same during measurement which may lead to classification error.
    8. The image being analyzed may sometimes be interfered by other phenomena that are not being measured and this should also be accounted for during analysis.
    9. Remote sensing technology is sometimes oversold to the point where it feels like it is a panacea that will provide all the solution and information for conducting physical, biological or scientific research.
    10. The information provided by remote sensing data may not be complete and may be temporary.
    11. Sometimes large scale engineering maps cannot be prepared from satellite data which makes remote sensing data collection incomplete.

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Asked: September 25, 2020In: Foundation

What is meant by stability of slope ? How to calculate slope stability?

nikeetasharma
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what is stability of slope and how can we calculate it?

  1. aviratdhodare

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    Added an answer on January 3, 2021 at 7:09 pm
    This answer was edited.

    Slope stability is the process of calculating and assessing how much stress a particular slope can manage before failing. Examples of common slopes include roads for commercial use, dams, excavated slopes, and soft rock trails in reservoirs, forests, and parks. Considering the importance of slope stRead more

    Slope stability is the process of calculating and assessing how much stress a particular slope can manage before failing. Examples of common slopes include roads for commercial use, dams, excavated slopes, and soft rock trails in reservoirs, forests, and parks. Considering the importance of slope stability to their work, it’s beneficial for civil engineers to understand how to properly evaluate slope stability and leverage various techniques to achieve slope stabilization.

    Evaluating Slope Stability

    Civil engineers evaluate slope stability on the following premise: if a slope is stable enough to resist movement, then it is considered stable; whereas if the movement is too strong for a slope, then it is considered unstable. There are a number of elements that factor into determining slope stability and are analyzed through a series of tests by civil engineers. Four of the most prominent factors include:

    • Relief – height differences amongst the slope’s terrain.
    • Material Strength – the strength of the material used in creating the slope.
    • Soil Water Content – relative amount of water in the soil surrounding the slope.
    • Vegetation – plants and vegetation covering and/or surrounding the slope area.

    Another factor which civil engineers must keep in mind is whether they are interested in determining short-term stability, long-term stability, or both. In either of these cases, civil engineers will need to evaluate the soil and determine if there is potential for slippage or sliding. In analyzing for long-term stability, engineers will also need to consider a number of factors, such as evaluating the potential quality of the soil in five or ten years or potential environmental events that could rupture or alter the soil.

    Techniques for Stabilization

    There are a number of techniques that civil engineers can leverage in achieving stabilization, some of which include:

    • Anchor blocking – where blocks are strategically placed across the slope to resist the movement of sliding soil.
    • Soil nailing – stabilization is achieved through the use of steel nails, which help provide support to the slope and/or infrastructure.
    • Gabions – attempt to provide stability through the use of walls (similar to blocks) formed with the soil. These walls are capable of being temporary for stability rehabilitation or permanent.
    • Micropile slide stabilization system – uses micropiles, concrete beams, and at times anchors to achieve stabilization. With this system, civil engineers insert a concrete beam into the ground then drill micropiles into the beam at various angles. Once complete, the connected micropiles will provide enough stability to protect an infrastructure from any sliding forces it may encounter.

    One of the more recent trends in slope stability is the implementation of sustainable slopes, particularly for flood protection systems. This process has become quite complicated as a result of the numerous variables that come with introducing a new and powerful element such as water. Due to these variables, civil engineers have had to expand and tighten their assessment and calculation skills as they deal with new uncertainties, such as the exact strength and power of a given flood.

    3D slope analysis is another growing trend for achieving and maintaining slope stability. Although not always necessary, 3D slope analysis has developed into a unique component of the slope stability process as it provides civil engineers with the capability to observe and analyze the actual state of the slope, as opposed to 2D which often relies upon assumptions to simplify the process. Furthermore, 2D slope analysis can be done only once a civil engineer knows the configuration and soil framework, whereas 3D slope analysis is able to manage more complex and potentially unknown factors. Examples of when 3D slope analysis may be used include:

    • Slopes featuring complex geometry
    • Differences in the geometry of slope and slip surface
    • Locally surcharged slope

    Slope stability has become a crucial component of America’s expanding infrastructure ecosystem. By calculating slope stability, civil engineers are able to create beautiful and innovative infrastructures in regions and areas that in the past were deemed unsafe for a building. Furthermore, the insight gained by determining slope stability has given civil engineers an expanded understanding of natural laws and forces, which they can study to improve future projects, as well as progress the civil engineering industry as a whole.

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Asked: September 25, 2020In: Construction

What is the correct procedure of designing surplus weir in irrigation?

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Give the correct procedure of designing surplus weir.

  1. aviratdhodare

    aviratdhodare

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    Added an answer on September 28, 2020 at 11:36 pm

    Surplus weir (waste weir): It is a concrte or masonry structure constructed to dispose off excess water from an irrigation tank. It is a safety device in the tank. Full tank level (FTL): It is the highest level up to which water could be stored in the tank. Excess water will go out through the surplRead more

    Surplus weir (waste weir): It is a concrte or masonry structure constructed to dispose off excess water from an irrigation tank. It is a safety device in the tank.

    Full tank level (FTL): It is the highest level up to which water could be stored in the tank. Excess water will go out through the surplus weir. Fixation of this level depends on the availability/demand of water.

    Max water level (MWL): It is the max level of water allowed in the tank. MWL is higher than FTL. The difference between MWL & FTL is the spillage or head on crest of surplus weir Fixation of this level depends on the submergence of land due to back water.

    Tank bund level (TBL): It is the top level of the liqd of the bund & is equal to MWL + freeboard.

    Abutment: The walls that flank the edge of a weir and which support the banks on each side of the weir. The length of the abutment is generally kept same as the base width of weir. The top level of the abutment is kept at tank bund level.

    Wing wall: A wall on a weir that ties the structure into the bank in continuation of the abutments. Wing walls are provided both on the u/s and d/s sides on both the banks to ensure smooth entry and exit of water away from the tank.

    Return wall (Return): These are provided at right angles to the abutment at the end of wing wall and extend into the banks to hold the back-fill.

    Splay: Horizontal deviation of wall. Ex: 1 in 3, 1 in 5, etc.

    Batter: Vertical deviation of wall. Ex: 1 in 8, 1 in 12, etc.

    Hydraulic gradient, Saturation gradient (or) Seepage gradient: It is the head loss
    (energy loss) per unit length in the direction of flow traveled by water particle through soil. Ex: Saturation gradient 4:1, it means to dissipate energy of 1m, water should travel a distance of 4 m in the soil

    Catchment area(watershed area, drainage area, drainage basin or basin or
    catchment): It is a portion of land which catches the rain and produces runoff through a one outlet.

    Free catchment: Entire runoff in the catchment will be passed direct to tank. It means water from catchment area is not go to other tank or channels, and it should directly goes to one tank.

    Intercepted catchment: Part of runoff will be intercepted and stored by the u/s side tank(s) within the catchment.

    Combined catchment: Entire runoff in the catchment will be shared by group of tanks or a chain of tanks which comes under the same catchment.

    D/S Apron of the surplus weir: Depending upon the foundation particulars, and the levels of U/S and D/S ground at the location of the work, any one of the following types can be adopted.

    Type A → Horizontal masonry apron – when fall height < 75 cm

    Type B → Sloping apron

    Type C → Similar to B but with rough stone sloping

    Type D → Stepped apron – when fall height ⩾ 75 cm

    Location of surplus weir: It is desirable to locate the surplus weir at or near the flank of the tank bund and connected to it, and also at a place where it is possible to drain the surplus waters below the work away from the tank bund falling into its natural watercourse. The cost of works should be minimum.

    Design a surplus weir for a minor tank forming a group of tanks with the following data:
    Combined catchment area                                                      = 25.89 km2 (35 km2)
    Intercepted catchment area                                                   = 20474 km2 (10 km2)
    Top width of the bund                                                             =2m (2m)
    Side slopes of the bund                                                           = 2:1 both sides (2:10n both sides)
    Top level of bund                                                                      = +1450 (+ 12.50)
    Maximum Water Level (MWL)                                             =+ 12.75 (+ 10.75)
    Full Tank Level (FTL)                                                              = + 12.00 (+ 10.00)
    General ground level at the site                                             =+ 11.00 (+ 9.00)
    Ground level slopes off to a level in about 6 m distance) = + 10.00 (+ 8.00 in about 6 m dist)
    The foundations are of hand gravel                                      = + 9.50 (+ 7.50)
    Saturation gradient                                          = 4:1 with 1 m clearcover (4:1 with 1m clearcover)
    Provision is to be made to store water up to MWL in-times of necessity

    Components to be designed

    (1) Estimation of flood discharge entering the tank (Q) :
    Combined catchment area (M) # 25.89 km2
    intercepted catchment area (m) = 20.71 km2
    Assuming Ryve’s coefficient(C) =9 and c = 1.5
    Flood discharge (Q) = CM2/3 – cm2/3
    Q = 9 (25.89)2/3 — 1.5 (20.71)2/3 = 78.77 — 11.32
    Q = 67.45 m3/s

    (2) Length of surplus weir (L):
    Assuming the flow over a surplus weir is identical to that of flow over a rectangular weir then discharge is given by Q = 2/3 CdL √2g h3/2
    where, Q = 67.45 m3/s, cd = 0.562 (assuming), g = 9.841 m/s2
    h = MWL – FTL = 12.75 — 12.00 = 0.75 m, L — Length of the water way
    67.45 = 2/3 x 0.562 x L √2×9.81 (0. 7s)3/2 → L=62.75 m ≈ 63.00 m (say)
    Since temporary regulating arrangements are to be made on top of weir to store water at times of necessity.
    The dam stones of size 15 x 15 x 125 cm are at 1m clear internals keeping top of the stone at M.W.L.
    The no. of openings will be = 63, The no. of dam stones required = 62
    ∴ The overall length of surplus weir between abutments = 63 + (62 x 0.15)
    = 72.30 m
    However, provide an overall length of 75 m.

    (3) Height of the weir (H):
    Crest Level = FTL = +12.00
    Top of dam stones (top of shutters) = M.W.L = + 12.75
    Ground level = + 11.00
    Hard soil at the foundation is + 9.50.
    However, taking foundations about 0.50 m deep into hard soil and fix up foundation level at + 9.00
    Assuming foundation concrete is 60 cm thick
    Top of foundation concrete = + 9.60
    Height of weir above foundations (H) = 12.00 – 9.60 = 2.4m

    (4) Crest width of weir (a):
    a = 0.55 (√H + √h) = 0.55(√2.4 + √0.75) = 1.3m

    (5) Base width of weir (b):
    The base width is determined based on moment considerations. i.e., based on the magnitude of stabilizing and destabilizing moments.
    Stabilizing moments are caused by self weight of the weir which is given by
    M = γw /12 = [{(G+15)H + 2.5S}b2 + a(GH – H – S)b – ½a2 (H +3S)]
    Where, γw = Unit weight of water = 1000 kg/m3
    G = Specific gravity of masonry = 2.25
    H = Height of the weir = 2.40 m
    a = Crest width of weir = 1.30 m
    b = Base width of the weir = ?
    S = h = height of shutter above weir crest = 12.75 – 12.00 = 0.75 m
    Destabilizing moments (M,)
    Mr = γw (H + S)3 / 6
    Equating both the moments: M,=M
    Mr = (2.4 + 0.75)3 / 6 = 1 /12 [{2.25 + 1.5)2.4 + 2.5 x 0.75} b2 + 1.3 (2.25 x 2.4 – 2.4 – 0.75)b – ½ (1.3)2 (2.4 + 3 x 0.75)]
    Solving, b = 2.4 m

    (6) Abutments, Wing walls and Returns:
    The top width of abutments, wing walls & returns will all be uniformly 0.50 m with a front batter of 1 in 8. Diag in attachment.
    Abutment (AB)
    Length of the abutment = width of bund = 2m
    The top level of the abutment is kept at TBL = + 14.50
    Bottom level of the abutment = top of foundation level = + 9.60
    Height of the abutment = 14.50 — 9.60 = 4.90 m
    Bottom width= 0.4 x height = 0.4 x 4.90 = 1.96 m = 2.00 m (say)
    Top width 2 0.5 m (assuming), Front batter = 1 in 8
    Wing walls:
    U/S Wing Wall:
    BD is called u/s wing wall
    Section at B:
    Same as the section of abutment
    Wing wall from B to C is sloping and
    Top level of C = M.W.L + 30 cm = 12.75 + 0.30 = 13.05
    Section at C:
    Top Level at C = 13.05
    Bottom level = 9.60
    Height of wing wall = 13.05 – 9.60 = 3.45 m
    Bottom width = 0.4 x height = 0.4 x 3.45 = 1.38 = 1.40 m (say)
    Top width from B to C is the same as 0.5 m.
    But, bottom width gets slowly reduced
    from 2.00 m at section at B to 1.40 m at Section C:
    From C to D wing wall is horizontal. Therefore, Section at D = Section at C
    U/S Return (DE):
    Section at E = Section at D
    U/S transition:
    In order to give an easy approach, the u/s side wing wall may be splayed at 1 in 3.
    D/S wing wall:
    AF is called d/s wing wall.
    Section at A: Same as the section of abutment. The Wing wall from A to F will slope down till the top reaches the ground level at F.
    Section at F:
    Top of wing wall at F = + 11.00
    Bottom of wing wall = + 9.60
    Height = 11.00 – 9.60 = 1.40 m
    Bottom width = 0.4 x 1.4 = 0.56 m
    However, provide a minimum of 0.6 m
    D/S return (FG):
    The same section at F is continued for FG also
    D/S transitions:
    Provide a splay of 1 in 5.

    (7) Aprons of the weir:
    i). U/S Apron: Though apron is not required on the u/s side of the weir, a puddle clay apron is usually provided to minimize the seepage under the weir.
    ii).D/S Apron: Since the ground level is falling down to +10.00 in a distance of about 6m. Then, the fall is (12.00 – 10.00) = 2.00 m > 0.75 m therefore provide a stepped apron (Type D) Diagram in attachment. The stepping may be done in two stages.
    (a) The length of the Apron: The length of the apron should be adequate to avoid piping problem.
    [Maximum uplift will be occurred when water level on U/S is up to top of dam stone (M.W.L.) and no water on D/S (+10.00))
    Max. Uplift head = 12.75 – 10.00 = 2.75 m (max. energy to be dissipated)
    Assuming a hydraulic gradient of 1 in 5
    The length of the creep required = 2.75 x 5 = 13.75 m
    The length and thickness of apronts to be designed.
    The length of the creep = AB + BC + CD + DE + EF = 1.40 + 0.60 + 3.00 + DE + 1 (Assuming EF = 1 m)
    This length should not be less than 13.75 m, if the structure is to be safe.
    13.75 = 1.40 + 0.60 + 3.00 + DE + 1 → DE = 7.75 m = 8.0 m (say)
    Provide total length of solid apron ts 8 m.
    First step in 3 m and second step in 5 m length.
    (b) Thickness of solid apron: The maximum uplift on the apron is felt immediately above the point D. (i.e., at point K)
    Assuming the thickness of apron at point K = 80 cm = 0.80 m.
    Then the level of K = 11.00 – 0.80 = 10.20
    The length of the creep from A to K = 1.4 + 0.6 + 3 + 0.6 + (10.20 – 9.60) = 6.20 m
    Head loss in percolation along the path up to the point K = 6.20/5 = 1.24 m
    Residual head exerting uplift under the apron at point K = 2.75 – 1.24 = 1.51 m
    Thickness of apron required = Residual head / Sp. gravity = 1.51/2.25 = 0.67 m
    Provide 20% of more thickness as a safety
    Then thickness of apron required = 0.80 m
    So, provide the first solid apron as 80 cm thick.
    The second apron can be similarly checked for a thickness of 50 cm.

    8) Talus: At the end of d/s side apron, a nominal 3 to § m length of Talus (i.e., rough stone apron) with a thickness of 50 cm may be provided as a safety mechanism.

     

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Asked: September 25, 2020In: Concrete

What is the difference between plain and reinforced concrete?

nikeetasharma
nikeetasharma

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Differentiate between plain and reinforced concrete. Among these to which one gives more strength?

  1. aviratdhodare

    aviratdhodare

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    aviratdhodare
    Added an answer on October 26, 2020 at 9:47 pm

    Basic differences PCC RCC Plain Cement Concrete R/f Cement Concrete It doesn’t carry ‘Steel’. It carries Steel. PCC is weak in tension loading while strong in compression loading. RCC is strong in both. PCC blasts on excessive loading & in an instant w/t giving any warning. RCC gives you enoughRead more

    Basic differences

    PCC RCC
    Plain Cement Concrete R/f Cement Concrete
    It doesn’t carry ‘Steel’. It carries Steel.
    PCC is weak in tension loading while strong in compression loading. RCC is strong in both.
    PCC blasts on excessive loading & in an instant w/t giving any warning. RCC gives you enough time to vacate the structure before collapse.

    What is PCC DPC and RCC in civil engineering | RCC and PCC

      Plain Cement Concrete R/f Cement Concrete
    Tension Steel tendons

    High tensile steel bars

    Included with tension

    Ordinary Mild Steel Deformed Bars

    No tension included

    Basic materials used Min grade of concrete

    Post-Tensioning → M30

    Pre-Tensioning  → M40

    to resist high stresses

     

    High strength steel to transfer large prestressing force

    Min grade of concrete → M20

    Steel                           → MS

    Effectiveness of member Entire section carries load Does not carries load
    Crack resistance High

    Cracks don’t occur under working loads

    Less
    Wt & suitability Light

    Heavy loads & longer spans

    Heavy

    Wt is more desired than steel

    Equiments Requires many specialized equiments

    Pulling jack, Post-tensioning pump, Master wedges, Anchhor head & bearing

    Doesn’t involve specialized equiments.
    Quality of steel reqd 1/3rd of RCC

    More strength & less c/s area

    More
    Deflection Very less More
    Load carrying capacity & Durability More Less
    Shock resistance More Less
    Yield As high as 2100 N/mm2 200 – 300 N/mm2
    Testing Testing of steel & concrete can be done while prestressing. No way of testing the steel & concrete.
    Cost Economical for span of 10m – 18m.

    As length of span gets ↑

    Cost % ↑

    C/s area of beam ↓

    Economical for span < 9m.
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Asked: September 25, 2020In: Miscellaneous

Describe the detailed classification of water application methods.

nikeetasharma
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Describe the detailed classification of water application methods. State the advantages and disadvantages of each method.

  1. aviratdhodare

    aviratdhodare

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    aviratdhodare
    Added an answer on September 25, 2020 at 4:03 pm
    Describe the detailed classification of water application methods.

    Based on energy/pressure reqd Gravity Irrigation. Border, basin & furrow irrigations Pressurized irrigation. Drip & Sprinkler irrigations Based on placement of irrigation water (on, above or below soil surface) Surface irrigation. Border, basin & furrow irrigations Subsurface irrigationRead more

    • Based on energy/pressure reqd

    Gravity Irrigation. Border, basin & furrow irrigations

    Pressurized irrigation. Drip & Sprinkler irrigations

    • Based on placement of irrigation water (on, above or below soil surface)

    Surface irrigation. Border, basin & furrow irrigations

    Subsurface irrigation

    Overhead irrigation. Sprinkler & hand watering

    • Based on wetted area of crop root zone by irrigation

    Flood irrigation (Border, basin & furrow)

    Drip (or trickle or localized) irrigation

    Sprinkler irrigation

    Surface Irrigation Method: Borders

    • Best adapted to grain and forage crops
    • Good for uniform soils with mild slope
    • Not good for crops sensitive to wet soil conditions
    • Typical efficiencies range from 70 – 85%
    • Major investment is that of land grading or leveling
    • Border strip width, W = 3 – 30m; Length, L = 100 —- 800m
    • Has zero side slope and uniform longitudinal slope of <1%
    • Strips have no cross slope

    Surface Irrigation Method: Basins

    • Field is divided into small units surrounded by levees or dikes
    • Basin size: 1 to 15 ha; up to 100 to 400 m long
    • Most commonly practiced for rice and orchard tree crops
    • Level basin
    1. Water is held until it infiltrates or is drained away
    2. Minimum runoff loss and High application efficiency is possible
    • Graded basin (contour levee irrigation)
    1. Constructed with two levees parallel and two perpendicular to the field contours
    2. Water enters along the upper contour and flows to the lower.

    Advantages

    • Water covers the basin rapidly to ensure good uniformity
    • Best suited for lands/crops where leaching is required to wash out salts from the root zone
    • Involves the least labour of the surface methods
    • Design efficiencies can be on the order of 70-85%

    Limitations

    • Levees interfere with movement of farm equipment
    • Higher amount of water is required compared to sprinkler or drip irrigation
    • Amajor cost in basin irrigation is that of land grading or leveling
    • Impedes surface drainage

    Surface Irrigation Method: Furrow

    • Irrigation is accomplished by running water in small channels (furrow)
    • Constructed with or across the field slope
    • Water infiltrates from the bottom and sides of furrows moving laterally and downward to wet the soil and to move soluble salts, fertilizer and herbicides carried with the water
    • Widely spaced row crops such as potato, maize, vegetables, and trees
    • Loam soil with mild slope, 0.5-2%
    • Labour reqd is generally higher
    • Major initial cost is construction of furrow

    Types

    1. Level
    2. Graded
    3. Contour

    Advantages

    • Efficiency can be high.as 90%
    • Developed at a relatively low cost after necessary land-forming activities are accomplished
    • Erosion is minimal
    • Adaptable to a wide range of land slopes

    Limitation

    • Not suitable for high permeable soil where vertical infiltration is much higher than the lateral entry
    • Higher amount of water is required, compared to sprinkler or drip irrigation
    • Furrows should be closely arranged

    Sprinkler Irrigation

    • Water is delivered through a pressurized pipe network to sprinklers, nozzles, or jets which spray the water into the air, to fall to the soil as an artificial “rain”
    • Light sandy soils are well suited
    • Sprinklers can be used on any topography
    • Sometimes used to germinate seed and establish ground cover for crops like lettuce, alfalfa, and sod
    • Very high efficiency water application
    • High capital investment but has low labor requirements

    Types

    1. Portable or hand move
    2. Solid set & permanent
    3. Travelling gun system
    4. Side roll system
    5. Centre pivot & linear move system

    Advantages

    • Readily automatable
    • Facilitates to chemigation and fertigation
    • Reduced labor requirements needed for irrigation

    Limitations

    • Many crops (citrus, for example) are sensitive to foliar damage when sprinkled with saline waters
    • Initially high installation cost
    • High maintenance cost

    Drip Irrigation

    • Constant steady flow of water is applied directly to the root zone of the plants by means of applicators operated under low pressure
    • Applicators: orifices, emitters, porous tubing, perforated pipe
    • Most efficient irrigation system
    • Most suited to high-density orchards, tree crops, and high-value horticultural crops
    • Not designed for large root systems
    • Suited for situations where the water supply is limited
    • Very effective in applying nutrients (fertilizers)/insecticides through the drip system
    • Burying the drip system reduces water loss even further by preventing runoff across the surface

    Advantages: 

    • Highly efficient system
    • Limited water sources can be used
    • Right amount of water can be applied in the root zone
    • It can be automated and well adapted to chemigation and fertigation
    • Reduces nutrient leaching, labor requirement, and operating cost
    • Nearly uniform distribution of water
    • Lower pressures are required-low energy for pumping

    Limitations:

    • High initial cost
    • Technical skill is required to maintain and operate the system
    • The closer the spacing, the higher the system cost per hectare
    • Damage to drip tape may occur
    • Cannot wet the soil volume quickly (to recover from moisture deficit) as other systems
    • Facilitates shallow root zone
    • Needs clean water

    Other Forms of Irrigation

    Hand watering

    • Nurseries and Fruit trees

    Capillary irrigation

    • Wet the root zone by capillary rise
    • Buried pipes or deep surface canals

    Localized irrigation

    • Water is applied around each or group of plants
    • Wets root zone only

    Subsurface irrigation

    • Water is applied below the ground surface either by raising the water table within or near the root zone or by using a buried perforated or porous pipe system

     

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